Ductile Iron Production Technology: A Review
Abstract
Ductile iron castings have proven to be the cost-effective materials of choice and/or potential alternatives to other competing materials (e.g. malleable iron, steel and aluminum castings) and manufacturing processes (forgings, fabrications, etc.) with either an improvement in service performance or lower production cost or both. The outstanding growth in the use of ductile iron castings in engineering applications including those in which the casting properties are critical to lower energy utilization, safe operations and in safety related components such as automobile steering knuckles and brake calipers, gears, valves, pumps, etc., has occurred because of the tremendous improvement in production capabilities resulting in quality consistency and freedom from imperfections, obtained through stringent microstructure control. This paper is a review of the production technology and development (in terms of the metallurgical, chemical composition, heat treatment, microstructure and mechanical properties and design parameters) of this unique class of engineering purpose cast irons and highlights niche applications where ductile irons excel over conventional materials.
References
Adetunji, A. R; Imasogie, B. I; Olasupo, O. A; Alasoluyi, J. A; Olusunle, S. O. O; Babatope, B. and Adewoye, O. O. Current Production Trends of Ductile Iron with the Rotary Furnace at Engineering Materials Development Institute, Akure, Nigeria. Unpublished work at EMDI, Akure, Nigeria, 2008.
Anderson, J. V. and Kaysay, S. I. Pouring Rate, Pouring Time and Choke design for SG Iron Castings. Brit. Foundryman 78 (10): 492-498, 1985.
Anon. A Design Engineer’s Digest of Ductile Iron. 8th Ed. RTZ Iron and Titanium America Report, 2004.
Anon. Technical information. Salt bath furnace heated by high-frequency current for small-scale and individual manufacturing. Metal Science and Heat Treatment, Springer Link, 1573-8973, p104, 2004.
Bockus, S. and Dobrovolskis, A. Effect of Melting Techniques on Ductile Iron Castings Properties. METABK, 45 (1): 13-16, 2006.
Caine, J. B. In Ductile Iron Castings. Design of Ferrous Castings, American Foundrymen’s Society, Des Plaines, IL. USA, 1984.
Chandler, H. E. Iron Castings. Source Book on Materials Selection. Vol. 1. ASM Engineering Bookshelf. ASM Metals Park. Ohio, 44073: 268-302, 1977.
Charkaluk, E and Constantinescu, A. Energetic Approach in Thermomechanical fatigue for Silicon-molybdenum Cast-iron. Mater. High Temp. 17: 373-380, 2000.
Davis, K. G. and Magny, J. G. Effect of Hydrogen Charging on Nodularization Efficiency of a Rare-earth Alloy used in Treating Cast Iron. Metal Science, 12: 51-55, 1978.
Delbrugge, V. Ausform Finishing for Bulk Strength and Ductility - in Focus on Mechanical Drive Transmission Technologies, iMAST Quarterly, 1: 3-7: 1999.
Dremann, C. E. New Alloys for Making ductile Irons in the Mold. Trans. American Foundrymen’s Society, 91: 263-264, 1983.
Ductile Iron Society. Ductile Iron Data for Engineers –Section 2. www.ductile.org/ ductile_iron.html. (assessed 14 Feb. 2013), 2010.
Emerson, P. J., and Simmons, W. “Final Report on the Evaluadion of t`e Graphite Form in Ferritic Ductile Iron by Ultrasonic and Sonic Testing, and the Effect of Graphite Form on Mechanical Properties”. AFS Trans. No. 76-26: 109-128, 1976.
Franklin, S. E. and Stark, R. A. Application of Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy to Study of Graphite Morphology in Cast Iron. Metal Science, 18: 187-200, 1984.
Fuller, A. G. Evaluation of the Graphite Form in Pearltic Ductile Iron by Ultrasonic and Sonic Testing and the Effect of Graphite Form on Mechanical Properties. AFS Trans. No. 77-102: 509-526, 1977.
Fuller, A. G., Emerson, P. J., and Sergeant, G. F. A Report on the Effect Upon Mechanical Properties of Variation in Graphite Form in Irons Having Varying Amounts of Ferrite and Pearlite in the Matrix Structure and the Use of Nondestructive Tests in the Assessments of Mechanical Properties of such Irons, AFS Trans, No. 80-09: 21-50, 1980.
Grigy, C and Le Gal, J (1981). Surface Fatigue of Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron. Atempted Improvement by Mechanical Heat treatments. Fonderie-Fondeur d’Aujourd’hui, 8, 21-29.
Guesser, W. L; Koda, F; Martinez, J. A. B. And da Silva, C. H. Austempered Ductile Iron for Gears, SAE International, adi-engrenagens.pdf. 2012-36-0305, 2012.
Hafiz, M. Mechanical Properties of SG-iron with Different Matrix Structures. Journal of Materials Science, 36: 1293-1300, 2001.
Heine, H. J. An Overview of Magnesium Treatment Processes which have stood the test of Time in America. Paper 9, BCIRA Conf. SG Iron – the next 40 Years, Univ. Warwick, UK, April 1987.
Hornung, K. and Hauke, W. Cast Iron Materials for Highly Stressed Automobile Components such as Gears. VDI-Zeitschrift, 123 (4): 16-24, 1981.
Horuichi, Y. Study on the Production of Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron by Calcium Treatment. Testu-to-Hagane, 43: 903-908, 1957.
Imasogie, B. I. Development and Characterization of Isothermally Heat-Treated Nodular Cast Irons. Ph.D. Thesis, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 1994.
Imasogie, B. I; Afonja, A. A. and Ali, J. A. Properties of Ductile Cast Iron Nodularised with a Multiple Calcium-Magnesium Based Master Alloy. Materials Science and Technology. 16(2): 194-201, 2000.
Imasogie, B. I; Afonja, A. A. and Ali, J. A. Properties of As-cast and Heat-treated Nodular Graphite Cast Irons, Melts Treated with CaSi-CaF2 Alloy. Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, 30(2): 91-102, 2001.
Imasogie, B. I. Microstructural Features and Mechanical Properties of Compacted Graphite Iron Treated with Calcium-Magnesium Based Masteralloy. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 12(3): 239-243, 2003.
Imasogie, B. I. Optimum Ca-CaC2-Mg Masteralloy Concentration Requirements in Graphite Nodularising Treatments of Cast Iron. Materials Engineering. 14(1): 77-86, 2003.
Imasogie, B. I. and Wendt, U. Characterisation of Graphite Particle Shape in Spheroidal Graphite Iron Using a Computer-based Image Analyzer. Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, 3(1): 1-12, 2004.
Johansson, M. Replacing Steel Components with ADI Castings. International ADI and Simulation Conference, May 28-30, 1997, Karkkila, Finland, 1997.
Krzemien, E. Cast Iron Spheroidization in Casting Mould; Zesz. Nauk. Politech. Slask [Hutn.] 2:123-130, 1979.
Kurganov, V. A; Taran Yu. N. Krause, L. A; Lesovoi, V. V. and Sofonov, V. F. Use of Complex Inoculants in the Production of High Strength Cast Iron Ingot Molds. Liteinoe Proizvod., 1: 8-10, 1981.
Lerner, V. and Lerner, Y. A new approach to the Solidification Modeling of Casting Processes. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Mathematical Modeling of Metalworking Processes. NMT-2000, pp. 351-360, 2000.
Lerner, Y. S. and Panteleev, G. V. Magnesium Treatment in Ductile Iron Production. Part I. Foundry Management and Technology, www.foundrymag.com, 25-31, 2002.
Lerner, Y. S. and Panteleev, G. V. Magnesium Treatment in Ductile Iron Production. Part 2. Foundry Management and Technology, www.foundrymag.com, 24-26, 2003.
Lerner, Y. S, Continuous Casting of Ductile Iron, FMT 221608 – ductile iron.pdf, 40-67, 2004.
Keough, J. R. and Hayrynen, K. L. (2000) Automotive Applications of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) – A critical Review. Society of Automotive Engineers. 2000-01-0764. Document.pdf. (accessed 12 October 2014).
Metal Casting: Project Fact Sheet. Consistent Casting of High Strength Ductile Iron. Crs-latestream.pdf (assessed 20 Feb. 2010), 2006.
Nicoletto, G.; Konecna, R; Hadzimova, B and Collini, L. Microstructure and Mechanical Strength of Nodular Cast Irons, Associazione Italiana per L’Analisi delle Sollecitaziani, XXXI Convegno Nazionale, 18-21 September, 2002, Parma, Italy, 206.pdf, 2002.
Olusunle, S.O. Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Austempered Rotary-Furnace-Melt Treated Ni-Cr Ductile Irons. Unpublished work at EMDI, Akure, Nigeria, 2008.
O’Rourke, R. F. www.gearsolution.com, 22 – 30; 2004-05-01_The_details_of_Ductile_Iron.pdf, 2004, (Accessed 23 December, 2014)
Palmeira, M; Oliveira, M; Cunha, A and Ribeiro, S. Process Measures Implemented into an IPPC Nodular Iron Foundry, Large Series Automotive Casting Producer, to Increase Energy Efficiency Use, ribeiro-ductile iron.pdf, 2006 (assessed 08 Sept. 2008).
Petrichenko, A. M. Priymak, V. A. Mozharov, M. V. Use of Complex Inoculants for the Production of Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron. Liteinoe Proizvod. 1: 7-8, 1981.
Sillen, R. The PQ-CGI Inmold Process. NovaCast AB Bulletin, 2004.
Takita, M. and Ueda, Y. Influence of Interfacial Energy on the Shape of Graphite in Cast Iron. Trans. Japan Institute of Metals, 20: 569-576, 1979.
Umoru L. E; Ali, J. A. and Afonja, A. A. Effect of Calcium on the Degree of Nodularization of Graphite in Cast Iron. NSE Technical Transactions, 2: 33-42, 2005.
US Pipe and Foundry Company (2013). Trenchless Applications with Ductile Iron Pipe. US Pipe and Foundry Company, 866.Dip. Pipe/www.USPIPE.COM. 20133211.627360.pdf 2013 (accessed 27 December, 2014).
Anderson, J. V. and Kaysay, S. I. Pouring Rate, Pouring Time and Choke design for SG Iron Castings. Brit. Foundryman 78 (10): 492-498, 1985.
Anon. A Design Engineer’s Digest of Ductile Iron. 8th Ed. RTZ Iron and Titanium America Report, 2004.
Anon. Technical information. Salt bath furnace heated by high-frequency current for small-scale and individual manufacturing. Metal Science and Heat Treatment, Springer Link, 1573-8973, p104, 2004.
Bockus, S. and Dobrovolskis, A. Effect of Melting Techniques on Ductile Iron Castings Properties. METABK, 45 (1): 13-16, 2006.
Caine, J. B. In Ductile Iron Castings. Design of Ferrous Castings, American Foundrymen’s Society, Des Plaines, IL. USA, 1984.
Chandler, H. E. Iron Castings. Source Book on Materials Selection. Vol. 1. ASM Engineering Bookshelf. ASM Metals Park. Ohio, 44073: 268-302, 1977.
Charkaluk, E and Constantinescu, A. Energetic Approach in Thermomechanical fatigue for Silicon-molybdenum Cast-iron. Mater. High Temp. 17: 373-380, 2000.
Davis, K. G. and Magny, J. G. Effect of Hydrogen Charging on Nodularization Efficiency of a Rare-earth Alloy used in Treating Cast Iron. Metal Science, 12: 51-55, 1978.
Delbrugge, V. Ausform Finishing for Bulk Strength and Ductility - in Focus on Mechanical Drive Transmission Technologies, iMAST Quarterly, 1: 3-7: 1999.
Dremann, C. E. New Alloys for Making ductile Irons in the Mold. Trans. American Foundrymen’s Society, 91: 263-264, 1983.
Ductile Iron Society. Ductile Iron Data for Engineers –Section 2. www.ductile.org/ ductile_iron.html. (assessed 14 Feb. 2013), 2010.
Emerson, P. J., and Simmons, W. “Final Report on the Evaluadion of t`e Graphite Form in Ferritic Ductile Iron by Ultrasonic and Sonic Testing, and the Effect of Graphite Form on Mechanical Properties”. AFS Trans. No. 76-26: 109-128, 1976.
Franklin, S. E. and Stark, R. A. Application of Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy to Study of Graphite Morphology in Cast Iron. Metal Science, 18: 187-200, 1984.
Fuller, A. G. Evaluation of the Graphite Form in Pearltic Ductile Iron by Ultrasonic and Sonic Testing and the Effect of Graphite Form on Mechanical Properties. AFS Trans. No. 77-102: 509-526, 1977.
Fuller, A. G., Emerson, P. J., and Sergeant, G. F. A Report on the Effect Upon Mechanical Properties of Variation in Graphite Form in Irons Having Varying Amounts of Ferrite and Pearlite in the Matrix Structure and the Use of Nondestructive Tests in the Assessments of Mechanical Properties of such Irons, AFS Trans, No. 80-09: 21-50, 1980.
Grigy, C and Le Gal, J (1981). Surface Fatigue of Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron. Atempted Improvement by Mechanical Heat treatments. Fonderie-Fondeur d’Aujourd’hui, 8, 21-29.
Guesser, W. L; Koda, F; Martinez, J. A. B. And da Silva, C. H. Austempered Ductile Iron for Gears, SAE International, adi-engrenagens.pdf. 2012-36-0305, 2012.
Hafiz, M. Mechanical Properties of SG-iron with Different Matrix Structures. Journal of Materials Science, 36: 1293-1300, 2001.
Heine, H. J. An Overview of Magnesium Treatment Processes which have stood the test of Time in America. Paper 9, BCIRA Conf. SG Iron – the next 40 Years, Univ. Warwick, UK, April 1987.
Hornung, K. and Hauke, W. Cast Iron Materials for Highly Stressed Automobile Components such as Gears. VDI-Zeitschrift, 123 (4): 16-24, 1981.
Horuichi, Y. Study on the Production of Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron by Calcium Treatment. Testu-to-Hagane, 43: 903-908, 1957.
Imasogie, B. I. Development and Characterization of Isothermally Heat-Treated Nodular Cast Irons. Ph.D. Thesis, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 1994.
Imasogie, B. I; Afonja, A. A. and Ali, J. A. Properties of Ductile Cast Iron Nodularised with a Multiple Calcium-Magnesium Based Master Alloy. Materials Science and Technology. 16(2): 194-201, 2000.
Imasogie, B. I; Afonja, A. A. and Ali, J. A. Properties of As-cast and Heat-treated Nodular Graphite Cast Irons, Melts Treated with CaSi-CaF2 Alloy. Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy, 30(2): 91-102, 2001.
Imasogie, B. I. Microstructural Features and Mechanical Properties of Compacted Graphite Iron Treated with Calcium-Magnesium Based Masteralloy. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 12(3): 239-243, 2003.
Imasogie, B. I. Optimum Ca-CaC2-Mg Masteralloy Concentration Requirements in Graphite Nodularising Treatments of Cast Iron. Materials Engineering. 14(1): 77-86, 2003.
Imasogie, B. I. and Wendt, U. Characterisation of Graphite Particle Shape in Spheroidal Graphite Iron Using a Computer-based Image Analyzer. Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, 3(1): 1-12, 2004.
Johansson, M. Replacing Steel Components with ADI Castings. International ADI and Simulation Conference, May 28-30, 1997, Karkkila, Finland, 1997.
Krzemien, E. Cast Iron Spheroidization in Casting Mould; Zesz. Nauk. Politech. Slask [Hutn.] 2:123-130, 1979.
Kurganov, V. A; Taran Yu. N. Krause, L. A; Lesovoi, V. V. and Sofonov, V. F. Use of Complex Inoculants in the Production of High Strength Cast Iron Ingot Molds. Liteinoe Proizvod., 1: 8-10, 1981.
Lerner, V. and Lerner, Y. A new approach to the Solidification Modeling of Casting Processes. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Mathematical Modeling of Metalworking Processes. NMT-2000, pp. 351-360, 2000.
Lerner, Y. S. and Panteleev, G. V. Magnesium Treatment in Ductile Iron Production. Part I. Foundry Management and Technology, www.foundrymag.com, 25-31, 2002.
Lerner, Y. S. and Panteleev, G. V. Magnesium Treatment in Ductile Iron Production. Part 2. Foundry Management and Technology, www.foundrymag.com, 24-26, 2003.
Lerner, Y. S, Continuous Casting of Ductile Iron, FMT 221608 – ductile iron.pdf, 40-67, 2004.
Keough, J. R. and Hayrynen, K. L. (2000) Automotive Applications of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) – A critical Review. Society of Automotive Engineers. 2000-01-0764. Document.pdf. (accessed 12 October 2014).
Metal Casting: Project Fact Sheet. Consistent Casting of High Strength Ductile Iron. Crs-latestream.pdf (assessed 20 Feb. 2010), 2006.
Nicoletto, G.; Konecna, R; Hadzimova, B and Collini, L. Microstructure and Mechanical Strength of Nodular Cast Irons, Associazione Italiana per L’Analisi delle Sollecitaziani, XXXI Convegno Nazionale, 18-21 September, 2002, Parma, Italy, 206.pdf, 2002.
Olusunle, S.O. Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Austempered Rotary-Furnace-Melt Treated Ni-Cr Ductile Irons. Unpublished work at EMDI, Akure, Nigeria, 2008.
O’Rourke, R. F. www.gearsolution.com, 22 – 30; 2004-05-01_The_details_of_Ductile_Iron.pdf, 2004, (Accessed 23 December, 2014)
Palmeira, M; Oliveira, M; Cunha, A and Ribeiro, S. Process Measures Implemented into an IPPC Nodular Iron Foundry, Large Series Automotive Casting Producer, to Increase Energy Efficiency Use, ribeiro-ductile iron.pdf, 2006 (assessed 08 Sept. 2008).
Petrichenko, A. M. Priymak, V. A. Mozharov, M. V. Use of Complex Inoculants for the Production of Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron. Liteinoe Proizvod. 1: 7-8, 1981.
Sillen, R. The PQ-CGI Inmold Process. NovaCast AB Bulletin, 2004.
Takita, M. and Ueda, Y. Influence of Interfacial Energy on the Shape of Graphite in Cast Iron. Trans. Japan Institute of Metals, 20: 569-576, 1979.
Umoru L. E; Ali, J. A. and Afonja, A. A. Effect of Calcium on the Degree of Nodularization of Graphite in Cast Iron. NSE Technical Transactions, 2: 33-42, 2005.
US Pipe and Foundry Company (2013). Trenchless Applications with Ductile Iron Pipe. US Pipe and Foundry Company, 866.Dip. Pipe/www.USPIPE.COM. 20133211.627360.pdf 2013 (accessed 27 December, 2014).
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Imasogie, B. (2015). Ductile Iron Production Technology: A Review. Ife Journal of Technology, 23(2), 24–35. Retrieved from https://ijt.oauife.edu.ng/index.php/ijt/article/view/127
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